Conflict Archaeology Bibliography

Here is a bibliography of academic works related to conflict archaeology, cultural heritage protection during armed conflict, and the use of archaeological and historical arguments in armed conflict. This bibliography will be regularly updated and suggested additions are encouraged.

Entries have links to full-text open access copies if they are available.

Archaeologies 4, No. 3 (December 2008). [Special Issue: Imperial Inspections: Archaeology, War and Violence].

Culture in Crisis: Preserving Cultural Heritage in Conflict Zones. Baltimore/Washington, DC: Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies/The Antiquities Coalition, 2017.

Culture Under Threat: Recommendations for the U.S. Government. The Antiquities Coalition, 2016.

Future Anterior 14, No. 1 (Summer 2017) [Special Issue on Preservation and War].

International Foundation for Art Research Journal 6, No. 1-2 (2003) [Special Issue: Art Loss in Iraq].

International Journal of Islamic Architecture 6, No. 2 (July 2017) [Special Issue on Islam and World Heritage].

Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies 1, No. 4 (2013) [Special Issue on Cultural Heritage in Conflict].

Lost Heritage: Antiquities Stolen from Iraq’s Regional Museums. Chicago: American Association for Research in Baghdad; London: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, 1992.

Near Eastern Archaeology 78, No. 3 (September 2015). [Special Issue: The Cultural Heritage Crisis in the Middle East].

Abdi, Kamyar. “Nationalism, Politics and the Development of Archaeology in Iran.” American Journal of Archaeology 105, No. 1 (January 2001): 51-76.

———. “From Pan-Arabism to Saddam Hussein’s Cult of Personality: Ancient Mesopotamia and Iraqi National Ideology.” Journal of Social Archaeology 8, No. 1 (February 2008): 3-36.

Abu El-Haj, Nadia. Facts on the Ground: Archaeological Practice and Territorial Self-Fashioning in Israeli Society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001.

Al Khabour, Anas. Illicit Trafficking of Cultural Properties in Arab States. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2022.

Almohamad, Adnan. “The Destruction and Looting of Cultural Heritage Sites by ISIS in Syria: The Case of Manbij and its Countryside.” International Journal of Cultural Property 28 (2021): 221-260.

———. “The Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Syria: The Case of Shash Hamdan Tomb 1 in the Upper Euphrates, 1995-2020.” Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies 10, No. 1 (2022): 49-73.

Al Quntar, Salam. “Syrian Cultural Property in the Crossfire: Reality and Effectiveness of Protection Efforts.” Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies 1, No. 4 (2013): 348-351.

Al Quntar, Salam, and Brian I. Daniels. “Responses to the Destruction of Syrian Cultural Heritage: A Critical Review of Current Efforts.” International Journal of Islamic Architecture 5, No. 2 (2016): 381-397.

Amineddoleh, Leila A. “Cultural Heritage Vandalism and Looting: The Role of Terrorist Organizations, Public Institutions and Private Collectors.” Santander Art and Culture Law Review 2/2015 (1): 27-62.

Bajorga, Sabri, ed. Destruction of Islamic Heritage in the Kosovo War, 1998-1999. Pristina, Kosovo: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kosovo, 2014.

Baker, Raymond W., Shereen T. Ismail and Tareq Y. Ismael. Cultural Cleansing in Iraq: Why Museums Were Looted, Libraries Burned, and Academics Murdered. New York: Pluto Press, 2010.

Baram, Amatzia. “Mesopotamian Identity in Ba’thi Iraq.” Middle Eastern Studies 19, No. 4 (October 1983): 426-455.

———. Culture, History and Ideology in the Formation of Ba’thist Iraq, 1968-1989. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991.

Bernbeck, Reinhard and Randall H. McGuire, eds. Ideologies in Archaeology. Tuscon, Arizona: University of Arizona Press, 2011.

Bernhardsson, Magnus T. Reclaiming a Plundered Past: Archaeology and Nation Building in Modern Iraq. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005.

Bessenay-Prolonge, Julie, Jean-Jacques Herr, and Mathilde Mura, eds. Archéologie des Conflits / Archéologie en Conflit – Documenter la Destruction au Moyen-Orient et en Asie Centrale Archaeology of Conflict / Archaeology in Conflict – Documenting Destruction of Cultural Heritage in the Middle-East and Central Asia. Paris: INHA, 2019. [Revue Routes de l’orient Actes 2].

Bogdanos, Matthew. Thieves of Baghdad. New York: Bloomsbury, 2005.

Bokova, Irina. “Fighting Cultural Cleansing: Harnessing the Law to Preserve Cultural Heritage.” Harvard International Review 36, No. 4 (Summer 2015): 40-45.

———. “Culture on the Front Line of New Wars.” Brown Journal of World Affairs 22, No. 1 (2015): 289-296.

Borgstede, Greg. “Cultural Property, the Palermo Convention, and Transnational Organized Crime.” International Journal of Cultural Property 21, No. 3 (August 2014): 281-290.

Boytner, Ran, Lynn Swartz Dodd, and Bradley J. Parker, eds. Controlling the Past, Owning the Future: The Political Uses of Archaeology in the Middle East. Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 2010.

Brennan, Katherine and Kate Fitz Gibbon. “Bearing False Witness: The Media, ISIS and Antiquities.” Special Report from the Committee for Cultural Policy. December 1, 2017.

Brodie, Neil. “The Market in Iraqi Antiquities 1980–2009 and Academic Involvement in the Marketing Process.” 117-133 in Manacorda, S., and D. Chappell, eds., Crime in the Art and Antiquities World (Springer, 2011).

———. “Scholarship and Insurgency? The Study and Trade of Iraqi Antiquities.”In “Illicit Traffic of Cultural Objects: Law, Ethics, and the Realities.” An Institute of Advanced Studies Workshop, 4-5 August 2011, University of Western Australia.

———. “Syria and Its Regional Neighbors: A Case of Cultural Property Protection Policy Failure?” International Journal of Cultural Property 22, No. 2-3 (2015): 317-335.

Brodie, Neil and Isber Sabrine. “The Illegal Excavation and Trade of Syrian Cultural Objects: A View from the Ground.” Journal of Field Archaeology 43, No. 1 (2018): 74-84.

Brosché, Johan, Mattias Legnér, Joakim Kreutz and Akram Ijla. “Heritage Under Attack: Motives for Targeting Cultural Property During Armed Conflict.” International Journal of Heritage Studies 23, No. 3 (2017): 248-260.

Brusasco, Paolo. “The Assyrian Sculptures in the Mosul Cultural Museum: A Preliminary Assessment of What Was on Display Before Islamic State’s Attack.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 75, no. 2 (October 2016): 205-248.

———. Dentro la devastazione: L’ISIS contro l’arte di Siria e Iraq. Milan: La nave di Teseo, 2018.

Campbell, Peter B. and Katie Paul. “Funding Conflict Through Cultural Property: The Destruction and Trafficking of Cultural Heritage by Islamic State.” 117-144 in Dealing with Terrorism : Empirical and Normative Challenges of Fighting the Islamic State. Edited by M. Engelhart and S. Roksandić Vidlička. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2019.

Carstens, Anne-Marie and Elizabeth Varner, eds. Intersections in International Cultural Heritage Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020.

Casana, Jesse and Mitra Panahipour. “Satellite-Based Monitoring of Looting and Damage to Archaeological Sites in Syria.” Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies 2, No. 2 (2014): 128-151.

Chalikias, Konstantinos, Maggie Beeler, Ariel Pearce and Steve Renette, eds., The Future of the Past: From Amphipolis to Mosul, New Approaches to Cultural Heritage Preservation in the Eastern Mediterranean. Boston: Archaeological Institute of America, 2016.

Chamberlain, K. War and Cultural Heritage: an analysis of the 1954 Convention for the protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict and its two protocols. Leicester: Institute of Art and Law, 2004.

Chonaill, Siobhan Ni, Anais Reding, and Lorenzo Valeri. Assessing the Illegal Trade in Cultural Property from a Public Policy Perspective. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2011.

Clack, Timothy and Mark Dunkley, eds. Cultural Heritage in Modern Conflict: Past, Propaganda, Parade. New York: Routledge, 2023.

Clapperton, Matthew, David Martin Jones, and M.L.R. Smith. “Iconoclasm and Strategic Thought: Islamic State and Cultural Heritage in Iraq and Syria.” International Affairs 93, No. 5 (September 2017): 1205-1231.

Culture Under Fire: Armed Non-State Actors and Cultural Heritage During Wartime. Geneva Call, 2018.

Cunliffe, Emma. Damage to the Soul: Syria’s Cultural Heritage in Conflict. Global Heritage Fund, 2012.

———. “Remote Assessments of Site Damage: A New Ontology.” International Journal of Heritage in the Digital Era 3, No. 3 (2014): 453-473.

———. “Archaeological Site Damage in the Cycle of War and Peace: A Syrian Case Study.” Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies 3, No. 2 (2014): 229-247.

Cunliffe, Emma and Luigi Curini. “ISIS and Heritage Destruction: A Sentiment Analysis.” Antiquity 92, No. 364 (August 2018): 1094-1111.

Cunliffe, Emma and Paul Fox, eds. Safeguarding Cultural Property and the 1954 Hague Convention: All Possible Steps. Martlesham, England: Boydell Press, 2022.

Cunliffe, Emma, Maria Lostal and Nibal Muhesin. “The Destruction of Cultural Property in the Syrian Conflict: Legal Implications and Obligations.” International Journal of Cultural Property 23, No. 1 (February 2016): 1-31.

Cunliffe, Emma, Wendy Pedersen, Manuel Fiol, Traci Jellison, Caryn Saslow, Einar Bjørgo and Giovanni Boccardi. Satellite-Based Damage Assessment to Cultural Heritage Sites in Syria. United Nations Institute for Training and Research, 2014.

Cuno, James. “The Responsibility to Protect the World’s Cultural Heritage.” The Brown Journal of World Affairs 23, No. 1 (Fall 2016): 97-109.

Cuno, James and Thomas G. Weiss, eds. Cultural Heritage Under Siege: Laying the Foundation for a Legal and Political Framework to Protect Cultural Heritage at Risk in Zones of Armed Conflict. J. Paul Getty Trust Occasional Papers in Cultural Heritage Policy 4. Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2020.

Curtis, Jon C. “Relations Between Archaeologists and the Military in the Case of Iraq.” Papers from the Institute of Archaeology 19 (2009): 2-8.

Danti, Michael. “Near Eastern Archaeology and the Arab Spring: Avoiding the Ostrich Effect.” Antiquity 88, No. 340 (June 2014): 639-643.

Davis, Eric. Memories of State: Politics, History and Collective Identity in Modern Iraq. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.

Deblauwe, Francis, ed. “The Iraq War & Archaeology: A Documentation and Information Project.” 2003-2008 (http://iwa.univie.ac.at/).

De Cesari, Chiara. “Postcolonial Ruins: Archaeologies of Political Violence and IS.” Anthropology Today 31, No. 6 (December 2015): 22-26.

Dodd, Lynn S. “Heritage Formulation in Overly Politicized Environments: A Commentary.” Archaeologies 3, No. 1 (April 2007): 4-15.

Drazewska, B. “The Human Dimension of the Protection of the Cultural Heritage from Destruction During Armed Conflicts.” International Journal of Cultural Property 22, No. 2-3 (2015): 205-228.

Emberling, Geoff and Katharyn Hanson, eds. Catastrophe!: The Looting and Destruction of Iraq’s Past. Chicago: Oriental Institute Museum, 2008.

Fanusie, Yaya J. and Alexander Joffe. Monumental Fight: Countering the Islamic State’s Antiquities Trafficking. Washington, DC: Foundation for the Defense of Democracies, 2015.

Flood, Finbarr Barry. “Idol-Breaking as Image-Making in the ‘Islamic State’.” Religion and Society: Advances in Research 7 (2016): 116-138.

Forsyth, Marion. “Casualties of War: The Destruction of Iraq’s Cultural Heritage as a Result of U.S. Action During and After the 1991 Gulf War.” DePaul University Journal of Art and Entertainment Law 14, No. 1 (2004): 73-108.

Frahm, Eckhart. “Mutilated Mnemotopes: Why ISIS Destroys Cultural Heritage Sites in Iraq and Syria.” European Union National Institutes for Culture (http://www.eunic-online.eu/?q=content/mutilated-mnemotopes-0, accessed April 29, 2017).

Frigerio, Alberto. “Heritage Under Attack: A Critical Analysis of the Reasons Behind the Destruction of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.” Aedon 2 (2014):

Frowe, Helen and Derek Matravers. Conflict and Cultural Heritage: A Moral Analysis of the Challenges of Heritage Protection. J. Paul Getty Trust Occasional Papers in Cultural Heritage Policy 3. Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2020.

Frulli, M. “The Criminalization of Offences against Cultural Heritage in Times of Armed Conflict: The Quest for Consistency.” European Journal of International Law 22, No. 1 (2011): 203-217.

Gerstenblith, Patty. “From Bamiyan to Baghdad: Warfare and the Preservation of Cultural Heritage at the Beginning of the 21^st Century.” Georgetown Journal of International Law 37 (2006): 245-351.

———. “The Media and Archaeological Preservation in Iraq: A Tale of Politics, Media, and the Law.” 15-35 in Archaeology, Bible, Politics, and the Media. Edited by Eric M. Myers and Carol Myers. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2012.

———. “The Legal Framework for the Prosecution of Crimes Involving Archaeological Objects.” Cultural Property Law 64, No. 2 (March 2016): 5-16.

———. “The Destruction of Cultural Heritage: A Crime Against Property or a Crime Against People?” The John Marshall Review of Intellectual Property Law 15 (2016): 336-393.

Gillot, Laurence. “Towards a Socio-Political History of Archaeology in the Middle East: The Development of Archaeological Practice and Its Impacts on Local Communities in Syria.” Bulletin of the History of Archaeology 20, No. 1 (May 2010): 4-16.

González-Ruibal, Alfredo, ed. Ethics and the Archaeology of Violence. New York: Springer, 2015.

González Zarandona, José Antonio, César Albarrán-Torres and Benjamin Isakhan. “Digitally Mediated Iconoclasm: The Islamic State and the War on Cultural Heritage.” International Journal of Heritage Studies 26, no. 6 (2018): 649-671.

Goode, James F. Negotiating for the Past: Archaeology, Nationalism, and Diplomacy in the Middle East, 1919-1941. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2007.

———. “Archaeology and Politics in Iraq: From the British Mandate to Saddam Hussein.” 107-123 in Assyrian Reliefs from the Palace of Ashurnasirpal II: A Cultural Biography. Edited by A. Cohen and S.E. Kangas. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 2010.

Grantham, David. “Antiquities and Conflict: Changing Military Strategy.” The Norwich Review of International and Transnational Crime 1, No. 2 (October 2016): 28-43.

Greenland, Fiona, James V. Marrone, Oya Topçuoğlu, and Tasha Vorderstrasse. “A Site-Level Market Model of the Antiquities TradeA Site-Level Market Model of the Antiquities Trade.” International Journal of Cultural Property 26, no. 1 (2019): 21–47.

Gruber, C. “The Visual Culture of ISIS: Truculent Iconophilia as Antagonistic Co-Evolution.” 125-155 in Nähe auf Distanz: Eigendynamik und mobilisierende Kraft politischer Bilder im Internet. Edited by Isabelle Busch, Uwe Fleckner and Judith Waldmann. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2019.

Guidetti, M. and Perini, S. “Civil War and Cultural Heritage in Syria, 2011-2015.” Syrian Studies Association Bulletin 20, No. 1 (2015).

Günther, Christoph. Entrepreneurs of Identity: The Islamic State’s Symbolic Repertoire, Audiovisuality, and Socioclasm. New York: Berghahn, 2022.

Hardy, Samuel Andrew. Interrogating Archaeological Ethics in Conflict Zones: Cultural Heritage Work in Cyprus. D.Phil diss. University of Sussex, 2010.

———. “Destruction, Theft and Rescue of Archaeological Artefacts in Cyprus, 1963-1974: From the Intercommunal Conflict until the Foreign Invasions.” In Nys, K and Jacobs, A, (Eds.). Cypriot material culture studies: From picrolite carving to proskynetaria. Proceedings of the 8th Annual Postgraduate Cypriot Archaeology Conference held in memory of Paul Åström, at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel (Belgium) from 27th to 29th November 2008. Göteborg: Paul Åströms Förlag, 2012.

———. “Using Open-Source Data to Identify Participation in the Illicit Antiquities Trade: A Case Study on the Cypriot Civil War.” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 20, No. 4 (December 2014): 459-474.

———. “The conflict antiquities trade: A historical overview.” Countering the illicit traffic in cultural goods: The global challenge of protecting the world’s heritage (2015): 21-31.

Hamilakis, Yannis. “The ‘War on Terror’ and the Military–Archaeology Complex: Iraq, Ethics, and Neo-Colonialism.” Archaeologies Arch 5, No. 1 (2009): 39-65.

Hanna, Reine and Grace Touma. Erasing the Legacy of Khabour: Destruction of Assyrian Cultural Heritage in the Khabour Region of Syria. Washington, DC: Assyrian Policy Institute, 2020.

Hassan, Fekri, Aloisia de Trafford and Mohsen Youssef, eds. Cultural Heritage and Development in the Arab World. Alexandria, Egypt: Bibliotheca Alexandrina, 2008.

Helle, Sophus. “The Return of Mess O’Potamia: Time, Space, and Politics in Modern Uses of Ancient Mesopotamia.” Postcolonial Studies 3, No. 19 (2016): 1-20.

Holtorf, Cornelius. “Can less be more? Heritage in the age of terrorism.” Public Archaeology 5, No. 2 (2006): 101-109.

Howard, Russell D., Prohov, Jonathan R. and Elliott, Marc D. “Digging in and Trafficking Out: How the Destruction of Cultural Heritage Funds Terrorism.” CTC Sentinel, Combating Terrorism Center (February 2015): 14-18.

———. IS and Cultural Genocide: Antiquities Trafficking and the Terrorist State [JSOU Report 16-11]. MacDill Air Force Base, Florida: Joint Special Operations University, 2016.

Isakhan, Benjamin. “Targeting the Symbolic Dimension of Baathist Iraq: Cultural Destruction, Historical Memory and National Identity.” Middle East Journal of Culture and Communication 4, No. 3 (2011): 275–81.

———. “Heritage Destruction and Spikes in Violence: the Case of Iraq.” 219-248 in Kila, J. D. and Zeidler, J. A. (eds.). Cultural Heritage in the Crosshairs: Protecting Cultural Property During Conflict. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2014.

———. “Heritage Under Fire: Lessons from Iraq for Cultural Property Protection.” 268-279 in A Companion to Heritage Studies. Edited by William Logan, Máiréad Nic Craith, and Ullrich Kockel. Hoboken, NJ, John Wiley & Sons, 2015.

———.”How to Interpret ISIS’s Heritage Destruction.” Current History 117, no. 803 (2018): 344-350.

Isakhan, Benjamin and Lynn Meskell. “UNESCO’s Project to ‘Revive the Spirit of Mosul’: Iraqi and Syrian opinion on heritage reconstruction after the Islamic State.” International Journal of Heritage Studies (February 2019): 1-16.

Isakhan, Benjamin and José Antonio González Zarandona. “Layers of Religious and Political Iconoclasm Under the Islamic State: Symbolic Sectarianism and Pre-Monotheistic Iconoclasm.” International Journal of Heritage Studies (May 2017): 1-16.

Isakhan, Benjamin, José Antonio González Zarandona, and Taghreed Jamal al-Deen. “Cultural Cleansing and Iconoclasm under the Islamic State: Attacks on Yezidis and Christians and their Heritage.” 181-194 in Sites of Pluralism: Community Politics in the Middle East. Edited by Firat Oruc. London: Hurst & Co, 2019.

Jones, Christopher W. “Understanding ISIS’s Destruction of Antiquities as a Rejection of Nationalism.” Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies 6, No. 1-2 (2018): 31-58.

Kila, Joris D. and James A. Zeidler, eds. Cultural Heritage in the Crosshairs: Protecting Cultural Property during Conflict. Leiden: Brill, 2013.

Kila, Joris, ed. Heritage under Siege : Military Implementation of Cultural Property Protection Following the 1954 Hague Convention. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill, 2012.

Klein, Adam. “Negative Spaces: Terrorist Attempts to Erase Cultural History and the Critical Media Coverage.” Media, War & Conflict 11, No. 2 (2018): 265-281.

Knuth, Rebecca. Burning Books and Leveling Libraries: Extremist Violence and Cultural Destruction. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 2006.

Kohl, Philip L., Mara Kozelsky and Nachman Ben-Yehuda, eds. Selective Remembrances: Archaeology in the Construction, Commemoration and Consecration of National Pasts. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.

Kohl, Philip L. and Clare Fawcett, eds. Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

Lababidi, Rim and Hiba Qassar. “Did They Really Forget How to Do It? Iraq, Syria and the International Response to Protect a Shared Heritage.” Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies 4, No. 4 (2016): 341-362.

Logan, William, Máiréad Nic Craith and Ullrich Kockel, eds. A Companion to Heritage Studies. Malden, Massachusetts: Wiley-Blackwell, 2015.

Lostal, Marina. “Syria’s world cultural heritage and individual criminal responsibility.” International Review of Law 3 (2015).

Lostal, Marina and Emma Cunliffe. “Cultural Heritage that Heals: Factoring in Cultural Heritage Discourses in the Syrian Peacebuilding Process.” The Historic Environment: Policy & Practice 7, No. 2-3 (2016): 248-259.

Luck, Edward C. Cultural Genocide and the Protection of Cultural Heritage. J. Paul Getty Trust Occasional Papers in Cultural Heritage Policy 2. Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2018.

Luke, Christina Marie and Morag M. Kersel. U.S. Cultural Diplomacy and Archaeology: Soft Power, Hard Heritage. New York: Routledge, 2013.

Luttwak, Edward and Zainab Bahrani. Cultural Heritage in War: Moral and Military Choices. New York: Columbia University Department of Art History and Archaeology, 2004.

Matthews, Roger, Qais Hussein Rashid, Mónica Palmero Fernández, Seán Fobbe, Karel Nováček, Rozhen Mohammed-Amin, Simone Mühl and Amy Richardson. “Heritage and Cultural Healing: Iraq in a Post-Daesh Era.” International Journal of Heritage Studies 26, no. 2 (2020): 120-141.

Mellman, Billie. Empires of Antiquities: Modernity and the Rediscovery of the Ancient Near East, 1914-1950. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2020.

Meskell, Lynn. “Negative Heritage and Past Mastering in Archaeology.” Anthropological Quarterly 75, No. 3 (Summer 2002): 557-574.

———., ed., Archaeology Under Fire: Nationalism, Politics and Heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. London: Routledge, 2008.

———. “Human rights and heritage ethics.” Anthropological Quarterly 83, no. 4 (2010): 839-859.

“Imperialism, Internationalism, and Archaeology in the Un/Making of the Middle East.” American Anthropologist (2020).

Moos, Olivier. “Iconoclasme en Jihadie: une réflexion sur les violences et destructions culturelles de l’état islamique.” Religioscope Études et Analyses No. 35 (December 2015): 1-20.

Moreland, A. “In the Absence of Sovereignty, How Will Isis Be Held Accountable for Their Crimes?” (2015) [Online]: University of Miami School of Law.

Morris, I. “The Struggle for Soft Power in the Middle East.” Stratfor Global Intelligence (9 September 2015).

Muhesen, C. E., & N. Lostal. “The Destruction of Cultural Property in the Syrian Conflict: Legal Implications and Obligations.” International Journal of Cultural Property 23, No. 1 (2015): 1-31.

Mulder, Stephennie. “Imagining Localities of Antiquity in Islamic Societies.” International Journal of Islamic Architecture 6, No. 2 (July 2017): 229-254.

Munawar, Nour A. “Reconstructing Cultural Heritage in Conflict Zones: Should Palmyra be Rebuilt?” Ex Novo Journal of Archaeology 2 (December 2017): 33-48.

———. “Competing Heritage: Curating the Post-Conflict Heritage of Roman Syria.” Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 62, No. 1 (June 2019): 142-165.

———. “Reconstructing Narratives: The Politics of Heritage in Contemporary Syria.” Journal of Social Archaeology 22, No. 2 (2022): 172-190.

Nankivell, Sarah. “Speaking of Sledgehammers: Analysing the Discourse of Heritage Destruction in the Media.” MA Thesis, Jesus College, University of Cambridge, 2016.

Newson, Paul and Ruth Young, eds. Post-Conflict Archaeology and Cultural Heritage: Rebuilding Knowledge, Memory and Community from War-Damaged Material Culture. London: Routledge, 2017.

NATO JALLC, Viera, F., Spangenberg, T., Ross, D. and Jones, D. Cultural Property Protection in the Operations Planning Process. Portugal: NATO, 2012.

O’Keefe, R. The Protection of Cultural Property in Armed Conflict. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Perini, Silvia and Emma Cunliffe, eds. Towards a Protection of the Syrian Cultural Heritage: A Summary of The National and International Responses. 3 vols. Girona, Spain: Heritage for Peace, 2014-2015.

Petrovic, Jadranka. The Old Bridge of Mostar and Increasing Respect for Cultural Property in Armed Conflict. Leiden, Netherlands: M. Nijhoff Publishers, 2013.

Pollock, Susan. “Archaeology and Contemporary Warfare.” Annual Review of Anthropology 45 (2016): 215-231.

Ralby, Ian M. “Prosecuting Cultural Property Crimes in Iraq.” Georgetown Journal of International Law 37, No. 1 (2005): 165-192.

Richter, Tobias. “Espionage and Near Eastern Archaeology: A Historiographical Survey.” Public Archaeology 7, no. 4 (Winter 2008): 212-240.

Rose-Greenland, Fiona. “ISIS at the Mosul Museum: Material Destruction and Our Moral Economies of the Past.” Perspectives 37, No. 1 (Spring 2015): 18-21.

Rosén, Frederik. “The Dark Side of Cultural Heritage Protection.” International Journal of Cultural Property 27 (2020): 495-510.

Rothfield, Lawrence, ed. Antiquities Under Siege: Cultural Heritage Protection After the Iraq War. Lanham, Maryland: AltaMira Press, 2008.

———. The Rape of Mesopotamia: Behind the Looting of the Iraq Museum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009.

Rush, Laurie. W., ed. Archaeology, Cultural Property, and the Military. Rochester, New York: Boydell Press, 2010.

———. “Working with the military to protect archaeological sites and other forms of cultural property.” World Archaeology 44, no. 3 (2012): 359-377.

Sabrine, Isber, Ristam Abdo and Neil Brodie. “Some New Evidence Documenting the Involvement of Da’esh in Syria with the Illicit Trade in Antiquities.” Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology and Heritage Studies 10, no. 2 (2022): 115-136.

Sahner, Christian. Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present. Oxford University Press, 2014.

Sandes, Caroline A. “Remembering Beirut: Lessons for Archaeology and (Post-) Conflict Redevelopment in Aleppo.” Ex Novo Journal of Archaeology 2 (December 2017): 5-32.

Sandholtz, Wayne. “The Iraqi National Museum and International Law: A Duty to Protect.” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 44 (2005): 185-240.

Sargent, Matthew, James V. Marrone, Alexandra Evans, Bilyana Lilly, Erik Nemeth, and Stephen Dalzell. Tracking and Disrupting the Illicit Antiquities Trade with Open Source Data. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2020.

Schneider, Peter, ed. Catastrophe and Challenge: Cultural Heritage in Post-Conflict Recovery [Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Heritage Conservation and Site Management, December 5-7, 2016]. Cottbus/Sneftenberg, Germany: Brandenburgische Technische Universität, 2017.

Shahab, Sofya  and Benjamin Isakhan. “The Ritualization of Heritage Destruction under the Islamic State.” Journal of Social Archaeology (March 2018): 1-22.

Silberman, Neil Asher. Between Past and Present: Archaeology, Ideology and Nationalism in the Modern Middle East. New York: Holt, 1989.

Smith, Claire, Heather Burke, Cherrie De Leiuen, and Gary Jackson. “The Islamic State’s symbolic war: Da’esh’s socially mediated terrorism as a threat to cultural heritage.” Journal of Social Archaeology 16, No. 2 (2016): 164-188.

Sørensen, Marie Louise and Dacia Viejo-Rose, eds. War and Cultural Heritage: Biographies of Place. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015.

Stanley-Price, Nicholas, ed. Cultural Heritage in Postwar Recovery: Papers from the ICCROM Forum held on October 4-6, 2005. Rome: International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property, 2007.

Stone, Peter G., ed. Cultural Heritage, Ethics and the Military. Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2011.

———. “A Four-Tier Approach to the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.” Antiquity 87 (2013): 166-177.

Stone, Peter G. and Joanne Farchakh Bajjaly, eds. The Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Iraq. Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2008.

Thurlow, M. “Protecting Cultural property in Iraq: How American Military Policy Comports with International Law.” Yale Human Rights and Development Journal 8, No. 1 (2014).

Toman, J. The protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict: commentary on the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and its protocol, signed on 14 May, 1954 in the Hague, and on other instruments of international law concerning such protection. Brookfield, Vermont: Dartmouth Publishing Company, 1996.

Tugendhaft, Aaron. The Idols of ISIS: From Assyria to the Internet. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2020.

Turku, Helga. The Destruction of Cultural Property as a Weapon of War: ISIS in Syria and Iraq. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018.

Van Der Auwera, Sigrid. “Peace Operations and the Protection of Cultural Property During and After Armed Conflict.” International Peacekeeping 17, no. 1 (2010): 3-16.

Viejo-Rose, Dacia. Reconstructing Spain: Cultural Heritage and Memory after Civil War. Portland: Sussex Academic Press, 2011.

———. “Reconstructing Heritage in the Aftermath of Civil War: Re-Visioning the Nation and the Implications of International Involvement.” Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding: Special Issue on Cultural Interventions 7, No. 2 (2013): 125-148.

Walasek, Helen, ed. Bosnia and the Destruction of Cultural Heritage. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate, 2015.

Weiss, Thomas G. and Nina Connelly. Cultural Cleansing and Mass Atrocities: Protecting Cultural Heritage in Armed Conflict Zones. J. Paul Getty Trust Occasional Papers in Cultural Heritage Policy 1. Los Angeles: Getty Publications, 2017.

Werr, Lamia al-Gaylani. “Archaeology and Politics in Iraq.” 15-30 in Critical Approaches to Ancient Near Eastern Art. ed. by Brian A. Brown and Marian Feldman. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2014.

Westcott, Tom. Destruction or Theft? Islamic State, Iraqi Antiquities, and Organized Crime. Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime Report, March 2020.

Williams, Tim. “Syria: A Loss of Faith.” Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 15, No. 3-4 (2013): 231-235.

Yazdi, Leila Papoli and Omran Garazhian. “Archaeology as an Imported Commodity: A Critical Approach to the Position of Archaeology in Iran.” Forum Kritische Archäologie 1 (2012): 24-34.

Yazdi, Leila Papoli, and Arman Massoudi. “The Consumptive Ruins: Archaeology of Consuming Past in the Middle East.” Archaeologies 13, No. 3 (December 2017): 435-459.

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